Cognitive Dissonance Is Defined By Gilovich Et - 1283 Words

Cognitive dissonance is defined by Gilovich et all’s textbook as â€Å" A theory that maintains the inconsistencies among a person’s thoughts, sentiments, and actions create an aversive emotional state (dissonance) that leads to efforts to restore consistency†. While this definition is true it also quite confusing. To understand this first the words that make up the term need to be understood. Cognition is a mental action, it involves gaining knowledge and understanding through use of thoughts, senses, and experiences. This cognition can produce a perception, sensation, notion, or intuition. Dissonance is simply a discrepancy among two things. In the case of cognitive dissonance this discrepancy is between any two of the following; an idea,†¦show more content†¦There are four distinct ways to reduce cognitive dissonance; Change the behavior or cognition, justify the behavior or cognition by changing conflicting cognition, justify the behavior or cognitio n by adding new cognitions, or ignore or deny any information that conflicts with one s existing beliefs. Cognitive dissonance was created by Leon Festinger in 1957. While it is just a theory is widely regarded as fact. Festinger created this theory when he was doing an observational study on a cult that believed the world was to be destroyed by a flood and the cult members would be spared by aliens. Cult members sold or gave away their positions, including their homes, and their jobs and then waited to be rescued by aliens. The aliens never came and the earth was obviously not destroyed. Festinger noticed a trend where the extremely committed members of the cult believed that the earth was spared due to the members extreme faith. The less committed members chocked it up to a bad mistake on their part or a worthwhile experience and ceased believing in the cult. This is a classic example of cognitive dissonance, the members with the highest commitment and faith changed their beliefs to think that their faith had spared the earth. The members who hadn t given up their homes and jobs, los t faith in the cult. The two separate belief changes by the two groups were both ways to relieve the cognitive dissonance created when the aliens never

Global Project Management Free Essays

Similarities and Differences between Domestic and Global Project Management. Global business practices are becoming increasingly common both for large multi-national organizations as well as small domestic businesses. Many businesses outsource work to other countries or contract people of organizations globally to complete project work or provide offshore services (Eberlein, 2008, p. We will write a custom essay sample on Global Project Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now 27). A better understanding of how to manage global projects is important to the body of knowledge about project management. The purpose of this study is to explore the similarities and differences between domestic and global project management. The research questions used to guide this study are 1. In what ways are domestic and global projects similar and different? 2. What are some mediating variables that contribute to global project failure or success? Domestic Project Management In the United States the Project Management Institute (PMI) project management body of knowledge (PMBOK) and the Association of Project Manager’s (APM) body of knowledge (bok) are used as guides for planning and controlling projects (Burke, 2001). According to the PMBOK a project is â€Å"a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. Temporary means that every project has a definite end. Unique means that the product or service is different in some distinguishing way from all similar products or services† (PMBOK as cited in Burke, 2001, p. ). All projects share the same basic components: (a) a project manager or single individual responsible for the outcome of the project, (b) a beginning and an end, (c) distinct phases, budget of allocated financial and physical resources, (d) unique set of activities specific to the project, (e) fast tracking to getting product or process completed before the competition, and (f) identification of team member roles and responsibilities (Burke, 2001). The role of the project manager is â€Å"to set up a management structure which not only meets the needs of the project, but the needs of the organization, the needs of the stakeholders and the needs of the individuals working on the project† (Burke, 2001, p. 1). Projects range in size and scope from small domestic projects to large multi-national global projects. The first, and often critical task of the project manager is to identify the stakeholders of the project and what their needs and expectations are in relation to the urpose and the scope of the project (Kerzner, 2003). According to the PMBOK, there are nine components that the project manager must consider: (a) integration, (b) time, (c) quality, (d) scope, (e) cost, (f) human resource management, (g) communication, (h) procurement, and (i) risk. This involves the project manager articulating what has to be completed in order for the project to be a success. This includes outlining how long the project will take, how much it will cost, what resources are needed, and what technical or subject matter experts are needed. Prior to implementation, the project manager works with others on the project team to develop a plan and how it will be implemented. Throughout the planning, implementation, and completion phases, the project manager is responsible for managing techniques and tools used as well as integrating, monitoring and maintaining the process and personnel from concept to completion of project objectives (Burke, 2001). Project integration involves the planning, execution, and control of the project and how the inputs from different knowledge and technical experts will be coordinated (Kerzner, 2003). Project scope management involves ensuring that all the tasks required for the project are defined, the resources required are identified, and controlling processes are in place (DeLone et al. , 2005). Project cost management includes understanding budget allocation and restrictions and planning how resources will be used, cost estimates and budgeting, cash-flow and control. Project quality management involves indentifying and maintaining the necessary conditions to ensure quality assurance and control during all phases of the project life cycle. Management of project personnel is also an important responsibility of the project manager. Project human resource management involves identifying, recruiting, and maintaining a project team with the right mix of technical and knowledge experts (Kerzner, 2003). Project communication management involves creating a work environment that facilitates the proper communication channels for the collection and dissemination of information related to planning, implementation, and completion of the project. Project risk management involves identifying risks and incorporating processes and procedures to mitigate against risks to the completion of the project. Finally project procurement management involves identification and implementation of processes that facilitate the planning and procurement of resources and necessary documentation for completion of the project (Burke, 2001, pp. 8-9). During the project life-cycle, project managers are responsible for oversight of such tasks or processes as work breakdown structure, critical path methods (calculation of all the activities from start to finish to determine the duration of the project), resource smoothing, earned value, and configuration control (Burke, 2001). Many organizations are turning to management-by-projects approach because it provides flexibility, decentralized management responsibility, a more holistic or global way of conceptualizing problems and solutions, and problem solution processes that are goal oriented (Burke, 2001, p. ). One benefit of management by project is that it allows for the inclusion of temporary, part-time or full-time workers as team members. Another is that this approach has been endorsed by the International Project Management Assoc iation (IPMA) (Burke, 2001). This is important for global project management scenarios. Global Project Management Global project management often involv es program management in which a project office is designated to mange a large capital project that is subdivided into smaller project teams each with a specific goal to achieve as part of a larger plan. Often the project manager will be involved with one or more of the following, either personally or through designated representatives: (a) recruitment of project team personnel, (b) human resources and personnel issues, (c) identification of economic factors related to the project, (d) computer or other technical systems to be used, (e) legal contracts or other required documentations, (f) sales and marketing issues if applicable, (g) and costs (purchasing, sales, and employee) (Burke, 2001, p. 5). Finally, the project manager either serves as the technical expert or identifies and includes on the project team the necessary technical and knowledge experts required to complete the project. The project manager is key to the success of any project. The project manager sets the overall tone and creates the environment in which the work is to be completed (Delone et al. , 2005). The project manager must contend with and integrate the different expectations of outside forces that influence the project development, implementation, and completion. This includes stakeholder goals and expectations as well as the immediate client or sponsor requirements for the project (Delone et al. , 2005). It also includes understanding how the project fits within the economic cycle, market requirement, and the competition. In addition, the project manager must complete the project within the culture and structure of the organization or organizations while adhering to any rules and regulations governing the industry (Espinosa et al. , 2003). Finally, and sometimes neglected, the project manager must be mindful of the political forces that can affect the completion of the project, both internal to the organization as well as the external environment (Burke, 2001, p. 6). These factors are static and the manager must be able to deal with uncertainty, change, and risk within the project environment. In a growing global business environment, projects often involve international partner and project teams composed of members from different geographical and cultural areas (Eberlein. 008). Global project managers are faced with a different set of challenges than faced by the domestic project manager. â€Å"Conducting projects in different countries, with their unique legal and political environment, security issues, economic factors, and infrastructure limitations and requirements, increases complexity far beyond that of projects executed in domestic settings† (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 1). Many of the issues discussed in r elation to domestic project management are applicable to global project management. However, in addition to the PMI and PMBOK in the United States, there are others organizations that provide project management guidelines such as the Association of Project Managers (AMP bok) in the United Kingdom, The AIPM Competency Standards for Project Management in Australia, the ISO 10006 Guideline to Quality in Project Management, South African unit standards, and the International Association of Project Managers (IPMA’s BOK) (Burke, 2001, p. ). The purpose of these resources is to provide a body of common knowledge that can be used in domestic as well as international projects Compared to the PMBOK used in the United States, the APM bok from the United Kingdom employs a broader approach to project management, utilizing 55 knowledge areas compared to the nine knowledge areas of PMBOK. The APM bok: Incorporates not only inward focused project management topics (such as planning and control techniques), but also broader topics in which the project is being managed (such as social and ecological environment), as well as specific areas (such as technology, economics, finance, organization, procurement and people as well as general management). (Burke, 2001, p. 8) Global project management involves an understanding of the industries and types of projects that are used in the countries involved in the project (Burke, 2001). When involved in global project management, a key issue is ensuring a common understanding and competence of project managers who come from different project management certification of licensure programs Delone et al. , 2005). Project managers and team members will have to work out a common business language and set of common practices and procedures that will be adhered to during the planning, implementation, and completion of the project. This is especially important when dealing with different legal systems and requirements of the countries involved in the project (Burke, 2001, p. 10). The Influence of Culture to the Success of a Project Global project managers must effectively deal with differences in language that could be barriers to communication and understanding. Cross-cultural differences can also pose challenges when cultural conventions are violated. This lack of attention to language and cultural will show up at any point in the life cycle from planning to the completion stage in the form of differences in quality standards adhered to by technical and knowledge experts as well as misunderstandings over goals and task requirements (Henri Sousa-Poza, 2005). Differences in labor relations, governmental agency involvement must also be addressed when forming a project team and setting the project deadline (Freedman Katz, 2007). A critical mistake a project manager can make in working with an international team is neglecting cultural variables than can pose a risk to planning and execution. For example, assigning a high-risk project to a team composed of members from a risk-averse culture (e. g. Germany, Japan, and China) may result in excessive time spent in the planning and risk assessment phase of the project life cycle, changing processes, procedures, and performance aspects to mitigate against low probability risks that results the wasting of time and resources, and negative attitudes about the success of the project (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 2). In countries such as Indonesia, Thailand, and some African nations, the successful completion of time-intensive and time critical projects can be jeopardized by a culture that places an empha sis on being patient and bending to the will of fate. It is therefore vital to review such cultural characteristics in the context of a project’s priorities, considering alternatives where appropriate† (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 2). Who the stakeholders are in a global project are also important considerations. While this is often neglected in domestic projects, the negative repercussions pose a greater threat to global projects (Freedman Katz, 2007). To mitigate against the negative risks associated with a global partnership, it is important to establish shared goals and objectives from the start. This is often a difficult process because of cultural differences between the countries involved. While all cultural differences cannot be eliminated, identifying and mutually acknowledging these differences can help decrease misunderstandings and insults that could threatened the completion of the project (Freedman Katz, 2007). Therefore, a project manager involved in any international partnership would take into consideration several factors that start with an assessment of the cultural values of the country and organization from which some of the team members would be recruited. Questions that the project manager would ask include: 1. How complex is the project? 2. How complex is the project infrastructure? 3. What are the key risk areas of the project? 4. How time-critical is the project? 5. What are your long-term objectives? 6. Which cultural barriers will you have to address? (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 3) Once the team has been established, time should be taken to clarify and align the technical and knowledge competencies required by team members as well as the intentions and expectations from both the domestic and globally based team members for how the project will proceed. Since communication may be more difficult when working with a global partner, it is incumbent on the project manager to take the extra time to clarify and confirm information shared between project team members and key stakeholders in the project (Delone, 2005). This process will help the project manager identify and deal with differences in values that might threatened effective collaboration (Freedman Katz, 2007). Project team leadership can be influenced differently in domestic and global project management. Approaches to leadership that work well in domestic projects may fail when working with culturally diverse team. For example, there is a hierarchy of communication between workers, supervisors, and leadership that are strictly adhered to in some countries (e. g. , India and Japan) that is not a part of the organizational culture in the U. S. Ignoring these cultural conventions could lead to project delay or even failure (Freedman Katz, 2007). In addition, some cultures are h ighly authoritarian, group-oriented, and use indirect communication; these cultural practices are different from U. S. practices that tend to be more egalitarian, individualist, and use direction communication. This can result in situations where project team members are confused about how to interact with others and how to approach project tasks, often leading to delay or project failure (Freedman Katz, 2007). If problems or conflict does occur, a project manager who understands the cultural differences at play, can work with team members to develop strategies that help adapting behaviors to accommodate differences in expectations about leadership, decision-making procedures, work styles, and rule/tactics of negotiation (Freedman Katz, 2007). Some cultures expect their leaders to be more egalitarian than is common among US leaders (e. g. , Scandanavia, Israel, Australia, and New Zealand). When leaders are perceived as too autocratic, team members often will resent the leader’s actions and ignore a leader they consider arrogant and overbearing. On the other hand, some cultures expect the leader to be more directive and autocratic (e. g. , most countries south of the US, Russia, China, India, Mid East, and Far Eastern countries) (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. ). When a leader is perceived to be too friendly or casual with subordinates, team members will react to the project manager with confusion and distrust (Freedman Katz, 2007). It cannot be understated the importance of project managers to accommodate their behaviors to the cultural and organizational expectations. â€Å"It is entirely possible to behave in a way that will be viewed as weak and ineffective in one culture and viewed as boorish and ineffective in anot her† (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 4). Palvia and Vemuri (2002) stress the key role that trust plays in the successful completion of a project. This is especially relevant to global project management were trust is built and strengthened by a project manager who recognizes the language, culture, local customs of the international partners and teams members in addition to knowledge about legal or regulatory requirements (Kliem, 2004). Project managers also must be prepared to work with leaders in other countries who are not familiar with working in cross-cultural teams and are unaware of how to interact in these situations. Project managers facile at â€Å"influencing, negotiating, and adapting their behavior to different people and contexts† (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 5) are best suited from global projects. These managers are able to build relationships and understand the important role that these relationship are to the success of a global project. These managers are able to tap into relationships formed with partner organizations to help resolve issues or expedite solutions. Project managers who have difficulty in the following areas would be poor choices for leading a global project: (a) building relationships, (c) knowingly or unknowingly ignores or insults foreign team members, (d) have poor communication skills, (e) views foreigners as lazy, stupid, or unable/unwilling to adapt, (f) unwilling to adapt his/her own behaviors, (g) takes for granted the importance of coming to consensus on issues related to project tasks, times, and quality (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 6). On the other hand, Freedman and Katz (2007) outlined several behaviors of the â€Å"uninformed† superior working for a foreign company that could threaten the collaboration, functioning, and success of a project. These disruptive behaviors include: ? Delegates completely, doesn’t see any reason to get involved. ?â€Å"They work for us—you make that clear to them! † ?Asks if the project manager is keeping â€Å"banker’s hours† when he/she comes in later after being on the phone from 11-3 the night before. ?Sees no reason to be selective (except technically) in placing people on an international project. Selects high risk/high collaboration projects for international work. ?Assumes the time required is the same for international and domestic projects. ?Is unwilling or unable to change leadership style to meet cultural expectations. (Freedman Katz, 2007, p. 5) Another factor that is different from domestic projects is that members on a global p roject team often are geographically and sometimes organizationally dispersed (Orlikowski, 2002). It is not uncommon for these project members to meet in â€Å"virtual teams† using telecommunications and information technology (Eberlein, 2008, p. 9). Bell and Kozlowski (2002) point out that the use of virtual teams add an additional layer of complexity to any program. The lack of personal contact hinders team development and constrains performance management. At present, â€Å"there have been few efforts to include the culture variable in the theoretical frameworks† (Gurung Prater, 2006, p. 24). Conclusion Being the manager of a globally based project can be exciting and rewarding with the project manager has the knowledge and skills to deal with culturally diverse work situations. In order to increase leadership effectiveness and the management of risk, uncertainty, and complexity, the project manager must become familiar with the guidelines for the project process that is common in the country where the project will be completed. In addition, cultural awareness and the ability to engage members of the team in effective communication that considers and respects cultural customs of the hosting country is critical to project success. Different countries respond differently to peers and those in positions of authority. A little â€Å"homework† about the culture and customs of the host country will serve the project manager well. References Bell, B. S. , Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2002). A typology of virtual teams: Implications for effective leadership. New York: Cornell University, Faculty Publications: Human Resource Studies Burke, R. (2001). Project management: Planning and control techniques (3rd ed. ). New York: John Wiley Sons. DeLone, W. , Espinosa, J. A. , Lee, G. , Carmel, E. (2005). Bridging global boundaries for IS project success. Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on Systems Science, Big Island Hawaii, IEEE. Eberlein, M. (2008). Culture as a critical success factor for successful global project management in multi-national IT service projects. Journal of Information Technology Management, 19(3), 27-42. Espinosa, J. A. , Cummings, J. N. , Wilson, J. M. , and Pearce, B. M. (2003). Team boundary issues across multiple global firms. Journal of Management Information Systems, 19(4), 157-190) Freedman, S. , Katz, L. (2007). Critical success factors for international projects. PM World Today, 9(10), 1-8. Retrieved April 18, 2010 from http://www. pmworldtoday. net Gurung, A. , Prater, E. (2006). A research framework for the impact of cultural differences on IT outsourcing. Journal of Global Information Technology Management, 9(1), 24-43. Henri, M. , Sousa-Poza, A. (2005). Project management: A cultural literary review. Project Management Journal, 36(1), 5-14. Kerzner, H. (2003). Project management: A systems approach to planning, scheduling and controlling. New York: John Wiley Sons. Kliem, R. L. (2004). Managing the risks of offshore IT development projects. Information Systems Management Journal, Summer, 22-28. Orlikowski,, W. (2002). Knowing in practice: Enacting a collective capability in distributed organizing. Organization Science, 13, 249-273. Palvia, S. C. , Vemuri, V. K. (2002). Global e-commerce: An examination of issues related to advertising and intermediation in Palvia, P. C. , Palvia, S. C. J. , Roche, E. M. (eds. ) Global information technology and electronic commerce: Issues for the new millennium. New York: Ivey League Publishing. How to cite Global Project Management, Essays

Impact of FDI on Land in Agriculture †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Impact of FDI on Land in Agriculture. Answer: Introduction: Zhu, Zhuang, Eva and Bernacchistates that the rapid increase of the world population require an increase in food production. According to the three, however food production has been facing a lot of challenges due to climate change. In the article Zhu, Zhuang, Eva and Bernacchimentions that lack of enough rains, cold seasons at the wrong time, flooding and storms have a very significant impact on local crops and livestock production. Although modern farmers have tried to deploy modern farming technologies and techniques to reduce the vulnerabilities and boost production, the effects of the recent drought highlight glaring potential future vulnerabilities. According to the three, climate change is already having measurable impacts on the quality and quantity of the food produced globally. However, this is termed as a small issue compared with the significant increase in global food production that has been achieved for the past few decades. Rising carbon dioxide concentration which is the primary driver for climate change has led to increase in the production of crops such as wheat, soybeans, and rice. Zhu, Zhuang, Eva and Bernacchistates that the rapid increase in climate change has led affected the length and quality of the growing season which has left many farmers with increasing damage to their crops. Farmers should be aware and be in a position to adopt climate change for the future of global food production to be in a better position. They should also be prepared for other pressures such as competition for land. The government should make sure that farmers are alerted on when to grow certain food crops after climatic research to make sure that they don't incur a lot of losses in cases where rain is expected in small amounts. Farmers should also be encouraged to practice modern farming technologies and techniques which will lead to rose in global food production which include the quality and quantity. In their article, Carley and Christie states that food production is not only affected by climate change but also through pollution, overgrazing, and release of greenhouse gases. Farming practices like applying fertilizers not only lead to air pollution but also water pollution when the fertilizers and chemicals applied seeps in water supplies which have led to the dramatic suffering of water quality. Contaminated water with fertilizers and chemicals have led to outbreaks of waterborne illness as well as having adverse effects on marine life. According to Carley and Christine, food production companies have greatly contributed to environmental pollution. This is because the dangerous gases which are emitted during the production of food substances in food industries are released into the atmosphere thus causing air pollution which has adverse effects on plants and animals. The waste products which are in most cases in solid and liquid form are released to the environment, and they ca n seep into water bodies causing water pollution. Greenhouse gases which are released into the air have led to the damage of the ozone layer which has led to adverse climatic changes. Overgrazing has contributed to soil erosion. Environmental degradation which occurs due to overgrazing, pollution, and release of greenhouse gases should be stopped by creating awareness to the public about their negative impacts on the environment. Farmers who practice livestock farming should be advised on the appropriate farming techniques to avoid cases of overgrazing which causes soil erosion. Food industries should be responsible for managing their waste products and not directing them to water bodies. This can be achieved by recycling them and making them useful instead of polluting the environment. Individuals should be advised to treat water before consuming it to get rid of waterborne diseases. The authors outlines food companies should be located in safe distances away from residential areas, and they should make use of newly designed smoke-free furnaces. Farmers should make sure the fertilizers and chemicals applied to their crops do not seep and enter water sources. They should also make sure they use the appropria te type and in the corrective amount to avoid contaminating the soil which can change the soil PH. Food productivity of any given region depends on the economy of that state. The level of the economy changes from one group of people to the other regarding their well-being status. Research from NCBI shows that the average world food production is increasing many countries; some nations in sub-Saharan Africa have a declined production. According to Santangelo, to improve food production levels across the world generally, an economic analysis is essential on the dynamics of food production, income growth and the demand for the food products. With this in mind, the responsible bodies will ascertain which crops to give more attention to others as there are those that are essential to human survival. To grow some crop, it requires one to have skilled labour and advanced technology as they play a key role in ensuring that food production is of high quality. Countries that have a high economic developed have taken the lead in food production as they undertake necessary research that helps them to invest wisely across all food production areas. In my opinion, the economic impact on food production is a primary area that should be given high attention in any other area if food production. When producing food items, it is essential to weigh their importance to the society, their demand and how they are affected by the changes in climate. Some crops depend on the economic investment, changes in climate and demand to be produced. Depending on the poor, unskilled labour for the production of these crops is a key area that should be put into consideration in the modern society that embraces conventional agricultural practices to improve the food supply. The governments of different nations across the world should join their efforts together with those of other non-governmental organizations in providing resources and skills that will improve the food production globally. This will help achieve a sustainable environment because when world manages to feed its entire population, there will be developed across all sectors. References Carley, M., Christie, I. (2017). Managing sustainable development. Routledge. Santangelo, G. D. (2018). The impact of FDI on land in agriculture in developing countries on host country food security. Journal of World Business, 53(1), 75-84. Zhu, P., Zhuang, Q., Eva, J., Bernacchi, C. (2017). Importance of biophysical effects on climate warming mitigation potential of biofuel crops over the conterminous United States. Gcb Bioenergy, 9(3), 577-590.